Module : PERFORMING ARTS I
Component: Introduction to Cinema
By Jean-Claude Uwiringiyimana
COURSE INTRODUCTION:
This course will introduce students to the history and theory of cinema. We'll explore the techniques of image, filming, sound recording, lighting and the important stages that are central in filmmaking (development, pre-production, production and post-production).
This course will provide especially students with solid theoretical and practical foundation/skills in short documentary and narrative (fictional) filmmaking.
Content
Chapter 1 Cinematography Definition and History
1.1DEFINITION
Cinema (short for cinematography)
a theater where films are shown ( for example : They decided to spend an evening at the cinema)
The art or technique of making films or movies; filmmaking; the art of moving pictures (from Greek: kinema - κίνημα "movement" and graphein - γράφειν "to record")
Films or movies considered as a group (for example African cinema)
The ASC (American Society of Cinematographers) defines cinematography as
a creative and interpretive process that culminates in the authorship of an original work of art rather than the simple recording of a physical event. Cinematography is not a subcategory of photography. Rather, photography is but one craft that the cinematographer uses in addition to other physical, organizational, managerial, interpretive and image-manipulating techniques to effect one coherent process.
1.2 HISTORY
One basic approach to studying film technique is to analyze changes in the uses of technique from an historical perspective, focusing on the ways in which innovations in film, video, and digital technology resulted in new types of techniques over the past one-hundred years. Each new technology break-through resulted in a experimentation and acceptance of new uses of techniques.
One of the central developments in film history was the “silent film” era featuring major figures such as D. W. Griffith,
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Charlie Chaplin,
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and Cecil B. De Mille
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The fact that the story and character development needed to be conveyed through non-verbal means required high-quality acting and uses of black-and-white images. The early silent Charlie Chaplin films, for example, relied on Chaplin’s physical dexterity and nonverbal skills. However, it is also important to recognize the Chaplin was conveying certain important political and ideological perspectives related to the importance of valuing the democratic ideal of the power of the ordinary person against the impersonal forces of business/bureaucracy. In his later films, Modern Times (1936) and The Great Dictator (1940), he more explicitly addressed political issues of government control and Nazism. In his later years, as he grew more critical of certain aspects of American capitalism, he was barred from re-entering America during the McCarthy era of the 1950s.
One of the most important episodes in film history was the introduction of sound in the 1920s. The addition of sound resulted in a major shift in films that focused more on drama (often highly staged and the musical genre). This led to the rise of the Hollywood studio production system in the 1930s in which drama films could be readily produced quickly in an assembly-line manner for showing at the increasing number of local film theaters. The studio system also resulted in the rise of certain directors who established their own unique styles despite the assembly-line process: John Ford, Frank Capra, Michael Curtiz, and later, Orson Welles and Alfred Hitchcock. It also resulted in the rise of the “film star” around whom films were often developed. This was particularly important for actresses such as Bette Davis, Marlene Dietrich, Greta Garbo, Claudette Clobert, Barbara Stanwyck, Carole Lombard, and Katharine Hepburn, who represented the image of the new outspoken, “independent” female in American culture.
After World War II, the rise of television had a negative impact on the film industry, as audiences no longer went to the film theaters as they did in the 1930s and 1940s. During the 1960s and early 1970s the industry reacted by creating films with innovative, novel, highly realistic material that would not be suitable for network television, leading to what is referred to as the “golden age” of American films epitomized by Godfather I and II. However, as studio profits began to decline, they were purchased by large conglomerates who were more concerned with profits for their companies. This led to the increasing focus in the 1980s to producing safe, predictable genre blockbuster films that would lead to large profits for the studio’s owners.
Television History
Changes in the development of television technology have also played an important role in influencing films as well as television itself. The whole concept of “live television” in the early years of television resulted in often high-quality productions because performers such as Jack Parr, Milton Berle, Arthur Godfrey, Jack Benny, and others needed to be able to ad lib their performances to live audiences. With the advent of color television in the 1950s and 60s, as well as the increasing popularity of television, television posed a major threat to the Hollywood film industry, forcing the film industry to develop new techniques such as wider screens and higher quality film stock and sound.
The rise of the “made for television” film also resulted in changes in how films were made for television. Because the screen size for television is smaller, directors had to made sure that actors were placed closer to each other within the frame. (One reason the films for the wide screen often do not work well on television is that material on the wide ends of the frame is often omitted.) They also often organized the narrative sequence knowing that there would be breaks for commercials.
As video cameras became lighter and smaller, news journalists were able to readily access and capture news events more readily than in the past. This resulted in the portrayals of battle scenes and dying soldiers in the Vietnam War, often referred to the as the first “television war,” something that had a strong influence on public opinion about the war. As Marshall McLuhan noted in a famous quote, "Television brought the brutality of war into the comfort of the living room. Vietnam was lost in the living rooms of America--not on the battlefields of Vietnam.
The development of VHS and Beta video tapes in the 1970s resulted in a major shift in viewing habits in that films that may not have been successful in theaters or that audiences missed could now be viewed at a later date. Moreover, film teachers could now easily focus on specific clips or review parts of a film in classrooms. The rise of DVD productions in the 1990s only further enhanced film study in that additional materials, out-takes, director interviews, historical background, etc., included on DVDs could be examined.
The 1990s also ushered in the increasing use of special effects and digital technology, with feature films being made increasingly using digital cameras. This allows for easier use of editing in the computer as well as instant distribution on the Internet. Once film theaters have invested in digital projectors, the costs of distribution will be reduced from having to ship bulky 35mm films. And, as the quality of home viewing on HDTV improves and becomes more affordable, the distinctions between film and home theaters will blur.
However, the 1990s also witnessed increased control of media conglomerates over the content, promotion, and distribution of films, resulting in the creation of an increasingly important independent film industry outside of the Hollywood studio system.
For further reading:
Cook, D.A. (1996). A history of narrative film. New York: W.W. Norton.
Giannetti, L, & Eyman, S. (2000). Flashback: A brief history of film, 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Gomery, D. (1991). Film history: A survey. New York: Wadsworth.
Mast, G., & Kawin, B. F. (2002). A Short History of the Films. New York: Pearson Longman
Thompson, K, & Bordwell, D. (2002). Film History: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Sklar, R. (2002). A world history of film. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sklar, R. (1994). Film-Made America: A cultural history of American films. New York: Vintage.
2. Theories on writing a screenplay (screenwriting)
2.1 GENERAL SPECIFICITIES OF WRITING FOR SCREEN
Writing for film, fiction or non-fiction, is quite different from writing for print. There are
a few unique features of film that a screenwriter must consider:
Film is visual. The words that a screenwriter writes will never be read by anyone. They will only be seen and heard as images on a screen. The most important skill of a screenwriter is that he must be able to write visually. Theorizing or explaining a concept in a script is pointless; if the audience can’t ‘look’ at the theory, it’s not worth writing. A screenwriter must think, ‘Is what I’m about to write visual in nature? If not, then how can I make it visual?”
Film shows motion. Most of the images you see on screen have action. It’s what separates moving images from photographs. Stories for film must be translated by a screenwriter into active images.
Film reveals what the eye often can’t see. A tiny cell in our bodies, a country we’ve never been to, details that we would normally miss. The screenwriter must bring things to life for the audience who may have never before experienced what they see on screen.
Film transcends time and space. A film doesn’t adhere to our dimensions of time and space. Once made, it continues to exist in a little bubble of its own, transcending the limits of our present lives. A screenwriter must understand that writing for a film means creating a being that should have a life of its own long after the writer has moved on from it.
Film is Subjective. By simply pointing the camera in a specific direction, a subjective choice has been made. The very nature of film, like our eyes, is to focus on what is considered to be the object of interest and eliminate what lies beyond the lens, thereby losing all sense of objectivity.
Film chooses audience. The screenwriter must always keep in mind that each film chooses its own audience depending on how he chooses to tell the story. By varying a script, he may be showing the film to very different people in the end.
Film repeats accurately. Film footage doesn’t discriminate between objects, doesn’t hide, cheat or lie. It consistently reproduces what the camera sees in full detail. It is the filmmaker who must shoot objects in a particular way to include or eliminate details.
Film may have colour and audio elements. It’s not only about moving images. Most films, unless the filmmaker chooses not to use them, have the elements of sound and colour. These elements are always, if present, incorporated into the SCRIPT.
2.2 Fiction (narrative or fictional film)
Fundamentally, the screenplay is a unique literary form. It is like a musical score, in that it is intended to be interpreted on the basis of other artists' performance, rather than serving as a "finished product" for the enjoyment of its audience. For this reason, a screenplay is written using technical jargon and tight, spare prose when describing stage directions. Unlike a novel or short story, a screenplay focuses on describing the literal, visual aspects of the story, rather than on the internal thoughts of its characters. In screenwriting, the aim is to evoke those thoughts and emotions through subtext, action, and symbolism.
It’s hard to write a good screenplay. It’s harder to sell one. But if you have the desire and drive to try ? Forget hard. And forget odds. Just tell yourself: Someone has to do it. That someone might as well be you.
Specifically, we’re dealing with feature film: films that run 1 to 13 minutes (for introducing you) and are intended for initial release in a film theatre. If you plan to write long films, you’ll still learn most of what you need to know here. The basics are very much the same.
A Visual Medium: Every medium has its strengths. Fiction thrives on language and interior thought. Television thrives on long-term familiarity with characters. Plays thrive on powerful dialogue. Film thrives on the visual. In fact, plenty of wonderful films were made in the silent era when there was no sound at all. So, at the very outset, it’s important you know this:
A film is a story told primarily through images.
Yes, films have sound now—both aural effects and dialogue—and it’s made them better and stronger than their predecessors, silent films. That said, images are still the most dominant element in a film : “Une image vaut mille mots”
Try to verify this for any film. You may hear dialogue, you may hear music, but over it all, the strongest element that will hit you is the memory of an image. The film image. Because films are images — telling a story.
i.e for Casablanca : Bogart in his white dinner jacket. A tear on Bergman’s haunted face. Smoke swirling through the Moroccan interior of Rick’s Café. You may have heard Bogey say, “Louis, I think this is beginning of a beautiful friendship.” But while you did, you visualized Bogart and Claude Rains walking through the mist, disappearing into an uncertain future.
Film being visual is something you should keep in mind throughout the process of writing any screenplay. There is a famous writer’s maxim: show, don’t tell.
"Pictures are for entertainment, messages should be delivered by Western Union" [Sam Goldwyn]
This applies more to film than any other story-based medium. Whenever you’re deciding how to portray a moment in the script, try first for visual, second for sound effects, and only third for dialogue. The strength of film is the way these three elements—visual, aural, verbal—work together to tell a story.
Screenplay as Blueprint : The irony of telling you a film is a story told through pictures is, when you write a script, you are writing words. No pictures. No photographs. No drawings. Just words on a page. Actual images appear later, when people other than the writer translate those written words into images.
It is an old saying in Hollywood, "The screenplay is merely a blueprint for a film." It's also ironic this is usually said in a dismissive way. There is not an architect I know who does not believe the blue print is the most important part of the building process. Without it, there would be no building. Without the screenplay, there is no film.
There is also, however, no film without the contributions of numerous other people. Screenplays are the first step in a tremendously collaborative process. Say you write this scene:
SEQ. 15 INT. MOTEL ROOM – NIGHT
MARY stands beside the window, watching rain streak the pane.
JEFF:
(Not looking at him)
I’m sorry.
JOHN is smoking, sitting on the table full of bottles of liquors of every kind. The bed is in disorder.
JOHN:
Me too!
That’s the end of the scene. But not the end of the process. The look of this motel room will have been slaved over by the director, director of photography, production designer, and the people responsible for "light" and "rain." After the actors have been prepared by costume, hair, and makeup, they still need to act this scene. The director will be overseeing all of this, trying to make it come out right — while a producer stands over his or her shoulder attempting to make the shoot come in under budget and on schedule. It will take at least several hours, if not longer, to shoot this scene, which will probably be shot at least three ways—close on Mary, close on John, master shot with both of them. Later on, an editor will decide which takes to use and splice them together. Then a sound editor will add the sound of rain and a composer will create the soundtrack.
That’s a lot of work for maybe 15 seconds of screen time. That's why films cost millions of dollars to make.
The screenwriter does not make all the final decisions, visual or otherwise. But the screenwriter lays the groundwork for all of it. If a scene is well written, it doesn’t need a lot more embellishment than what is written here. Though this is not a brilliant scene, it conveys a lot of information—visual, aural, and verbal—with elegant economy. The intent of the scene is clear. There is also opportunity for other people to fill out the scene with their own creativity and expertise.
"Creativity and expertise" come in differing forms and qualities. When they don't improve the film, they're called "liberties." When they do improve the film, they're called "brilliant contributions." Things come up during shooting. A director changes the setting. An actor improvises some dialogue. Things get cut or moved around in the editing room. A finished film almost never parallels the original script exactly. But your job is clear. Write clearly and eloquently enough, through all of that, the intent of each scene is meaningful and clear.
There are several main screenwriting theories which help writers approach the screenplay by systematizing the structure, goals and techniques of writing a script. The most common kinds of theories are structural. Screenwriter William Goldman is widely quoted as saying "Screenplays are structure".
Three act structure
Most screenplays have a three act structure, following an organization that dates back to Aristotle's Poetics. The three acts are setup (of the location and characters), confrontation (with an obstacle), and resolution (culminating in a climax and a dénouement). In a two-hour film, the first and third acts typically last 30 minutes, with the middle act lasting an hour.
BUT "A film must have a beginning, middle and an end. But not necessarily in that order" [Jean-Luc Godard]
Besides the three act structure, one could also use four or even five acts in a screenplay, though these would be used to suit longer stories than the classic 120 page format.
Screenwriting guru Syd Field wrote the seminal book Screenplay, and posited a new theory, which he called the Paradigm. Field noticed that in a 120-page screenplay, Act Two was notoriously boring, and was also twice the length of Acts One and Three. He also noticed that an important dramatic event usually occurred at the middle of the picture, which implied to him that the middle act was actually two acts in one. So the Three Act Structure is notated 1, 2a, 2b, 3, resulting in Aristotle's Three Acts divided into four pieces.
Field also introduced the idea of Plot Points into screenwriting theory. Plot Points are important structural functions that happen in approximately the same place in most successful films, like the verses and choruses in a popular song. Here is a current list of the major Plot Points that are congruent with Field's Paradigm:
Opening Image(s): The first image(s) in the screenplay should summarize the entire film, especially its tone. Often, main characters are presented in this major plot.
A good beginning does these things:
1. Creates an audiovisual ‘hook’ to catch the audience’s interest. A
‘hook’ is something that demands attention and places the film
contextually in space and time. It sets up the flavor of things to come, both in a story and audiovisual sense.
2. Establishes the ‘core assertion’ of the film, which is the point the filmmaker wants to make through the documentary and the message he wants to communicate to the audience. It is this message around which the entire film is built going forward.
3. Creates curiosity among the audience. A good beginning reveals the subject and issue at hand to the audience in such a way that they become keen to see the events that follow in the film.
4. Shows change or the promise of change, which is one of the inherent elements of story and of film.
5. Creates the element of consequence, which is one event leading to another. Cause and effect will direct the audience and increase their understanding of the subject matter.
Inciting Incident (Elément déclencheur): Also called the catalyst, this is the point in the story when the Protagonist encounters the problem that will change their life. This is when the detective is assigned the case, where Boy meets Girl, and where the Comic Hero gets fired from his cushy job, forcing him into comic circumstances.
Plot Point 1 (Noeud Dramatic Majeur I): The last scene in Act One, Turning Point One is a surprising development that radically changes the Protagonist's life, and forces him to confront the Opponent. For example, in Star Wars, this is when Luke's family is killed by the Empire. He has no home to go back to, so he joins the Rebels in opposing Darth Vader.
Pinch 1: A reminder scene at about 3/8 the way through the script (halfway through Act 2a) that brings up the central conflict of the drama, reminding us of the overall conflict. For example, in Star Wars, Pinch 1 is the Stormtroopers attacking the Millennium Falcon in Mos Eisley, reminding us the Empire is after the stolen plans to the Death Star R2-D2 is carrying and Luke and Ben Kenobi are trying to get to the Rebel Alliance (the main conflict).
Midpoint: An important scene in the middle of the script, often a reversal of fortune or revelation that changes the direction of the story.
Pinch 2: Another reminder scene about 5/8 through the script (halfway through Act 2b) that is somehow linked to Pinch 1 in reminding the audience about the central conflict. In Star Wars, Pinch 2 is the Stormtroopers attacking them as they rescue the Princess in the Death Star. Both scenes remind us of the Empire's opposition, and using the Stormtrooper attack motif unifies both Pinches.
Plot Point 2 (Noeud Dramatique Majeur II) : A dramatic reversal that ends Act 2 and begins Act 3, which is about confrontation and resolution. Sometimes Turning Point Two is the moment when the Hero has had enough and is finally going to face the Opponent. Sometimes, it's the low-point for the Hero, and he must bounce back to overcome the odds in Act 3.
Showdown (Climax): About midway through Act 3, the Protagonist will confront the Main Problem of the story and either overcomes it, or come to a tragic end. Before ending, a good middle :
A good middle consists of good sequences, which also have their own beginnings, middles and ends. Within the sequences, the flow of events determines these parameters. There could many types of sequences within a film, ranging from the dramatic ones that decide the film’s direction, to the sequences that lead up to and follow after the dramatic ones. The scriptwriter must allot a particular message for each sequence and ensure that each one has an impact on its own. Then, he can explore the order in which he will place them all depending on flow of information and the gradual increase of impact.
These sequences must be related to each other and unified as a whole in order to give the film a flow. The scriptwriter can use the following criteria to relate and unify them:
1. Concept, idea, thought – The most common link between sequences is subject matter. Each sequence is related with the others through the common issues it deals with.
2. Action – Sequences can be related to each other through the kinds of events and actions they portray.
3. Setting – Many of the sequences may share a common location and many more may have different locations within a common, larger setting.
4. Character – Sequences in a film often share the same characters and are, therefore, unified by these common characters.
5. Mood – Sequences can often relate to each other by having a common flavour or mood. For example, one sequence could show slum streets around the world, another could show the defeated faces of employment seekers. The two sequences are related by the gravity and desolation of their mood.
The Elements of Pacing - Rhythm and Tempo
Because a story is a metaphor of life, we expect it to feel like life, to have the pace, rhythm and tempo of life. Rhythm is set by the length of sequences. It is important to vary the length of sequences and not keep them long or repetitive. Most sequences are visually expressive in one location within two or three minutes. A sequence held too long in one place becomes redundant and loses audience attention. Tempo is the level of activity within a sequence. A person staring out of a window contemplating life may have a low tempo; a riot will naturally have a high tempo. In a well-told story, the progression of sequences normally accelerates pace. As he heads toward a dramatic point in the film, the scriptwriter could take advantage of rhythm and tempo to progressively shorten scenes while the actions in them become more and more brisk. Immediately after a dramatic point in the film, the scriptwriter can ‘let the audience breathe’ and slow down the pace. Dramatic sequences themselves are usually played out for maximum impact and the length depends very much on the subjects and events of the individual sequence. Pace begins in the script and it is important that the scriptwriter to incorporate it at this stage.
‘Beats’
Beats are a useful technique often used by scriptwriters in creating pace for the film. A beat is the smallest element of structural technique. It is an exchange of behavior in action/reaction. Beat by beat these changing behaviors shape a sequence. A sequence needn’t be built up of just one action. It can have multiple actions, and each action is one beat. For example; A man could walk into a room, walk to the window and look out, sit down on a chair, pick up a book and read it, put down the book, get up and leave the room. This sequence has five beats – 1. Walking into the room, 2. Looking out the window, 3. Sitting down, 4. Reading a book 5. Getting up and out of the room.
The scriptwriter can benefit from breaking down each sequence into beats because he can then have greater control over the sequence. He can shave off beats to make a sequence shorter, add more beats to make it longer or increase and decrease the tempo of beats to suit the point of time in which the sequence occurs. In documentary, the scriptwriter may have limited control over the nature of actions that take place in a sequence, but he can control how many of them feature in the final film.
Linear Vs Non-linear time
The scriptwriter also has a choice whether to order the sequences in linear time, meaning a temporal order of the events that occurred, or in non-linear time, a random order where the film can switch back and forth between events that occurred at different points of time without any temporal continuity. Whereas linear time is a more traditional method of arranging sequences, many documentary scriptwriters these days opt for non-linear time to tell a story. Non- linear time is generally held to the more ‘interesting’ of the two because the scriptwriter has far greater control over the amount of information revealed to the audience at every stage since they may not initially follow the order of events. However, this is a difficult arrangement to master and the scriptwriter needs to be completely clued into the audience reactions and provide information in a succinct manner so as not to confuse or overwhelm them. The scriptwriter can also combine the two arrangements to the extent that he can have some sequences arranged chronologically and occasionally slip into the future or the past using flashbacks and recreations.
Transitions
Every story needs to have a seamless progression between sequences for the entire thing to work. For this, it needs to have something to link the tail of each sequence to the head of the next sequence. Generally, we find this linking element in one of two possibilities: what the two sequences have in common, or what they have in opposition. A ‘Transition’ is something held in common by two sequences or counter pointed between them. This common or counter element can be many different things:
- A character trait or situation; Two adjacent sequences could feature people with similar or completely opposite traits and the transition would be smooth. For example; the eyes of a man to the eyes of a woman, or the eyes of a man who can see to the eyes of a blind man.
- An action; Any event that continues naturally from one to the other has a smooth transition, as do events that may follow each other chronologically, but are opposites. For example, boisterous noise in a room to cold silence.
- An object; A smooth transition would be between two similar objects, like a greenhouse interior to a forest, or two opposites, like the Sahara Desert to the Arctic.
- A word; a word or a phrase used in the narrative could link two sequences. For example, the same word occurring in both sequences or one sequence featuring the word ‘dark’ and the next featuring the word ‘light’ in the narrative.
- A quality of light; two similar or opposite moods created by film lighting could transition sequences smoothly. For example; a shadowy meadow to a shadowy room or a bright afternoon to a clear, moonlight night.
- A sound; one sound or similar type of sound could be a ‘sound- bridge’ between two sequences, or one type of sound could turn into its exact opposite. For example, the notes of a violin from one violin player to an orchestra or from the notes of a violin to the din of construction machinery.
- An idea; an abstract idea, metaphor or concept could connect two sequences as well. For example, a wilting bunch of flowers to the deathbed of an old man.
The Element of Progression
Many a time, a film starts off with a bang and fizzles down to a boring rut by the time it reaches the middle. This is the result of the scriptwriter’s imagination going limp at the worst possible time. The scriptwriter must keep in mind that a story must not retreat to actions of lesser intensity or magnitude but move progressively forward to a final action. The events must become bigger and better and their excitement and involvement must gradually increase as the film move forward. This is called progression. The scriptwriter must never resort to repetition, staying on one point too long or showing too many similar events. The movement forward needs to be sharp and planned. This presents a tricky problem to the scriptwriter in terms of how to express the element of progression. Broadly, there are four techniques to this:
Social Progression – this is when the film progressively widens its character’s actions and expressions into society and social situations. Gradually, the film may feature more and more people, allow their actions to ramify outward into their communities and into the world around them thereby affecting the lives of other people. The idea behind this technique is to start small with only a few people and a simpler story, then gradually build and add more dimensions to it in a powerful progression of events. For example; a story about a farmer’s land being repossessed by the government could lead to the documentary questioning government policy and involving farmers from all over the country.
Personal Progression – If the subject matter of the film doesn’t require an outward progression, then it can be just as effective to progress inwards instead. The idea behind this technique is to start with a simple storyline and go from the outside in, making it more and more layered emotionally, psychologically, physically, morally and perhaps even go into darker elements of the human personality. For example; a story about a man struggling to deal with survivor’s guilt could go deep into human psychology and explore how we perceive death and dealing with surviving a deadly situation while another didn’t make it.
Symbolic ascension – There are countless, imaginative realms of symbolism to which a film could progress. The scriptwriter could build the symbolic energy of the story from the particular to the universal, from the specific to the archetypal. Subliminal symbolism, added subtly to a film in layers lifts the telling of a story into the next level of expression. As the story progresses, the film could feature concepts and images that are more and more meaningful until everything stands for universal ideas. This technique may not be completely in keeping with the realism of documentary, but it can be used extensively if the subject is in keeping with the symbolic nature of the film. For example; a film on art could progress from a painter’s story to symbolic expressions of art and the universal need for artistic expression.
Ironic ascension – Irony is not a straightforward concept. It sees life in duality and plays with our ideas of what seems and what is. To portray irony with words is easier than in a story on film. The scriptwriter needs to have an ironic sense to incorporate it into a film with élan. He must also put a lot of trust in the audience’s ability to ‘get’ the irony. A film with ironic ascension could show a progressively dominant play between actions and results and between appearance and reality.
Resolution: The issues of the story are resolved.
Tag: An epilogue, tying up the loose ends of the story, giving the audience closure. This is also known as denouement.
Coda (from Italian “coda”, tail): the final facultative short scene in which the hero appears after giving the audience closure. The content of this scene is connected to the real life of the hero, not to the conflict of the film.
Screenwriting formats:
Screenplays and teleplays have set of standardizations in place, beginning with proper formatting. These rules are in part to serve the practical purpose of making scripts uniformly readable "blueprints" of films, and also to serve as a way of distinguishing a professional from an amateur. It is very important that the correct format is used, as the script is likely to be disregarded very quickly. There are practical reasons for this. An incorrectly formatted script can be very difficult for actors to read from, when testing the script out. If you are unsure exactly what is required, then at least be consistent, and keep things as simple as possible.
Motion picture screenplays intended for submission to mainstream studios, whether in the US or elsewhere in the world, are expected to conform to a standard typographical style known widely as studio format which stipulates how elements of the screenplay such as scene headings, action, transitions, dialog, character names, shots and parenthetical matter should be presented on the page, as well as the font size and line spacing.
a)Scene/sequence headings:
Number of the sequence (scene), space (external or internal) plus location, day time (Day or night) in capital letters:
SEQ. 10 EXT. IN DENSE FOREST – DAY
b)Description of action and inclusive character names:
The description has to be very detailed for more “seeing” all details of the whole action. The new character names are written in capital letter.
Examples from famous films :
1.BASIC INSTINCT by Joe Eszterhas
INT. A BEDROOM – NIGHT
It is dark; we don't see clearly. A MAN and WOMAN make love on a brass bed. There are mirrors on the walls and ceiling. On a side table, atop a small mirror, lines of cocaine. A tape deck PLAYS the Stones: "Sympathy for the Devil." Atop him... she straddles his chest... her breasts in his face. He cups her breasts. She leans down, kisses him...JOHNNY BOZ is in his late 40's, slim, good-looking. We don't see the woman's face. She has long blonde hair. The CAMERA STAYS BEHIND and to the side of them. She leans close over his face, her tongue in his mouth...she kisses him... she moves her hands up, holds both of his arms above his head…(…)
2.I N D E P E N D E N C E D A Y by
Dean Devlin & Roland Emmerich
AN AMERICAN FLAG
Oddly still, posted in gray dusty sand.
WIDEN TO REVEAL:
EXT. LUNAR SURFACE - NIGHT
One small step for man, one large pile of garbage for moon- kind. Untouched for years, the flag stands next to the castoff remains of the Apollo mission. Slowly the discarded equipment begins to RATTLE and SHAKE. AN ENORMOUS SHADOW creeps towards us blotting out the horizon,a loud RUMBLE is heard. Suddenly we are covered in DARKNESS as the SHADOW engulfs us. Only the lonely image of our EARTH hangs in the air, until a huge silhouetted OBJECT suddenly blocks our view.
3.T I T A N I C by James Cameron
65 EXT.POOP DECK - NIGHT
Jack is kicked back on one of the benches gazing at the stars blazing gloriously overhead. Thinking artist thoughts and smoking a cigarette.
Hearing something, he turns as Rose runs up the stairs from the well deck.They are the only two on the stern deck, except for QUARTERMASTER ROWE, twenty feet above them on the docking bridge catwalk. She doesn't see Jack in the shadows, and runs right past him.
TRACKING WITH ROSE as she runs across the deserted fantail. Her breath hitches in an occasional sob, which she suppresses. Rose slams against the base of the stern flagpole and clings there, panting. She stares out at the black water. Then starts to climb over the railing. She has to hitch her long dress way up, and climbing is clumsy. Moving methodically she turns her body and gets her heels on the white-painted gunwale, her back to the railing, facing out toward blackness. 60 feet below her, the massive propellers are churning the atlantin into white foam, and a ghostly wake trails off toward the horizon.
IN A LOW ANGLE, we see Rose standing like a figurehead in reverse. Below her are the huge letters of the name "TITANIC".
She leans out, her arms straightening... looking down hypnotized, into the vortex below her. Her dress and hair are lifted by the wind of the ship's movement. The only sound, above the rush of water below, is the flutter and snap of the big Union Jack right above her.
For further reading:
http://www.screenplays-online.de
www.scriptpimp.com/show.../free_screenplays/
c)Dialogues
In the middle, with character names in capital letters :
JEFF:
(Not looking at him)
I’m sorry.
JOHN is smoking, sitting on the table full of bottles of liquors of every kind. The bed is in disorder.
JOHN:
Me too!
One reason for this presentation is that, when rendered in studio format, most screenplays will transfer onto the screen at the rate of approximately one page per minute. But for some cases, this rule of thumb is widely contested — a page of dialog usually occupies less screen time than a page of action, for example, and it depends enormously on the literary style of the writer — and yet it continues to hold sway in modern Hollywood.
Screenplays are almost always written using a monospaced font, often a variant of Courier or Courier New, both mostly used as 12 pt font.
American screenplays are printed single-sided on three-hole-punched letter sized (8.5 x 11 inch) paper, and held together with two brass brads in the top and bottom hole. The middle hole is left empty. In the UK, double-hole-punched A4 paper is often used, although some UK writers use the US letter paper format, especially when their scripts are to be read by American producers, since otherwise the pages may be cropped when printed on US paper. Despite the use of double-punched paper, it is common to see scripts in the UK held together by a single brad punched in the top left hand corner. This makes it easy to flip from page to page during script meetings and may have something to do with the taller page of A4.
Screenplays are usually bound with a light card stock cover and back page, often showing the logo of the Production Company or agency submitting the script.
Increasingly, reading copies of screenplays (that is, those distributed by producers and agencies in the hope of attracting finance or talent) are distributed printed on both sides of the paper (often professionally bound) to cut down on paper waste out of environmental concerns. Occasionally they are reduced to half-size to make a small book which is convenient to read or put in a pocket; this is generally for use by the director or other production crew during shooting.
Although most writing contracts continue to stipulate physical delivery of three or more copies of a finished script, it is common for scripts to be delivered electronically via email. Although most production companies can handle scripts in most formats, it is better practice to supply scripts as a PDF file where possible. This is because it gives the writer final control over the layout of the script, which may otherwise vary depending on what fonts and/or paper size the recipient uses to print the script out. The formatting software programs listed at the bottom of this article produce industry standard formatted screenplays in PDF.
Dialogue and description
In writing, the screenwriter may give the reader an idea of how a scene without camera angles can be descriptive, and perhaps even poetic, so as to convey the proper time frame (1960) and/or ambiance.
Imagery
Imagery can be used in many metaphoric ways. For example, mentioning rain to express a character feeling depressed, sunny days promote a feeling of happiness and calm. Imagery can be used to sway the emotions of the audience and to clue them in to what is happening.
Dialogue
Dialogue is not the central element in cinema but it is very important to the film industry, because there are no written words to explain the characters or plot; it all has to be explained through dialogue and imagery.
Practice on Short Screenplay
Particular advices: How do to write a Short Screenplay?
Writing a short screenplay, also called a short or a tenner, is a great way for new screenwriters to learn about film structure, technique and characters. Short screenplays are generally between 3-30 pages long, and feature a small cast and few locations. Writing a short screenplay may be your first step to creating a produced film that you can enter into film festivals and competitions.
Because of the time constraint of a short script, most writers choose to focus on one plot or idea. Subplots can take too long to develop, and can detract from the central theme of the script. Before you begin writing, consider outlining your plot, or free-writing to help you better understand what you are trying to say with the script. The clearer your picture of the theme, the easier it will be to transfer onto the page.
In the writing stage of a film, you are limited only by your imagination. If you want to make a film about a cat’s fight with a chicken, then the cat and chicken are your main characters.
Feature-length films are usually structured to follow a cohesive plot line from beginning to end. Short films are more fluid, and plot is often less important than image, character, and emotion. Many experts believe a successful short film is one that leaves the viewer with a single strong emotional impression. Try to focus on what you want people to feel after they have seen the script, and pursue that feeling as well as you can.
The most important factor in writing a short screenplay is that you believe in your concept. Very few screenwriters ever make their living through making movies, so be sure to choose a subject you love and are passionate about. The short screenplay format is a fluid medium that allows considerable creativity and innovation. While it is important to understand film conventions, if you love what you are writing and think it would make a great short screenplay, never let writing rules get in your way.
2.3. DOCUMENTARY SCRIPT WRITING
When it comes to documentaries in particular, there are a few more things to be kept in mind before starting to write a script. Documentary scripts do share many common elements with scripts for fiction films, shorts and features alike. However, they also have
their own specific considerations:
Documentary deals with fact, not fiction. Most importantly, documentaries delve into a non-fictional world with real events, real issues, real conflict, real people and real emotions. Everything seen and heard on screen is grounded in accuracy and has no element of fiction.
Documentary is flexible. Unlike fictional films, documentaries have no fixed visual and conceptual guidelines per say. It’s impossible to concretize events or decide one way or the other about how the film will turn out eventually. There are fewer ‘rules’ to be followed, which reflects the fact that there are few rules in the real world as well. This makes it more challenging but infinitely more exciting.
Documentary inspires movement and action. At the very heart of documentary, there is an issue and a message at hand. The passing on of this message to the audience is usually the reason that the film was made in the first place. Documentaries have long been used as an instrument to inspire change in their audience, be it social change or inner change.
Documentary involves less control. Unlike fiction films, documentaries must be shot in the real world and show real events happening. Often, the filmmaker is unable to control the event he is shooting as well as the circumstances surrounding the event. It’s difficult to think about lighting when in the middle of a sniper shootout! There is less control over the subject in documentary; however this unmodified, improvised element is often the very charm of non-fiction films.
Documentary subject is paramount. Documentaries are inherently bound to their subject matter. Since their purpose is so issue-specific and their circumstances are non-fictional, the subject is the most important aspect of documentary films and is given precedence over other aspects, for example: entertainment value. In fact, until recently filmmakers scoffed at the idea of a documentary being entertaining. This attitude has, of course, changed now but subject still remains the dominant element.
Credibility is key in Documentary. The emergence of the documentary as a recognised cinematic genre in the 1920’s inherited the trust of the audience in the veracity of the image as an authentic representation of the real. Today, we are much more skeptical, even with documentaries. Audience trust, once lost is gone forever so a documentary, in this day and age, must always provide credible information and sources to put a suspicious audience at ease.
Form is more important than formula. There are no recipes in documentary films. Every subject and issue is specific and is showcased on film in its own appropriate manner. Form and the layout in which a subject is showcased in a film are important as they add value to the film, but there is no one tried and tested way to do this. In addition to these conceptual considerations, the screenwriter must ask a number of practical questions as well:
· Why is this film being made?
· What does the producer/client/financier want to achieve through the film?
· Who is the targeted audience and what should their reaction to the film be?
· How much does the audience already know about the subject?
· What will be the film’s technical conditions of use (Black & White/Multi-colour? Animation? Etc)
· What is the budget of the film?
These factors contribute significantly to the nature of the script for the simple reason that,
at the end of the day, film like any other art is a product. Artistry must go hand in hand with practicality, production technicalities and, of course, economics. You may ask yourself, “What difference does a film’s budget make to a script?” The answer is, enormous. It would be easy to write a powerful scene about an ancient battle in a foreign country but the reality of it is that the film crew would have to fly there, hire hundreds of men, use elaborate costumes and props and perhaps even hire trained horses for authenticity. There would even be the additional costs of transport, food etc. This could be an expense the budget does not allow. The scriptwriter will probably have to write a ‘cheaper’ version of the same scene, which might be to shoot abstract visuals of a few men’s feet running, weapons clashing, bloody faces etc and supplement them with the voice of an historian talking about the battle in question and what happened in it.
SHORT INTRODUCTION TO DOCUMENTARY STYLES
Over the years, several documentary styles evolved that came and went from fashion.
These styles ranged from newsreel to realist to romantic to propaganda and many more. However, three emerged as the most popular and encompassed most of the documentary films made well up to the 1990’s.
Classical Cinema
This is the most structured and traditional form of documentary. It gives great importance to clarity of narrative and images. Characters drive the plots, and continuity editing ensures the seamless progression of events. These kinds of documentaries often made extensive use of didactic narration, as was seen in the most famous documentary in this style, Night Mail by John Grierson, which showed, in dramatised detail, how mail was transported by train overnight. The sequences were tightly controlled and the ‘feel’ was quite formal. The element of ‘realism’ was often interfered with by the filmmaker, who interspersed on-location shots with studio shots and sound dubbing to show real events and make them more ‘filmable’.
Cinéma Vérité / Direct Cinema
This style of documentary originated in the late 1950’s and reached new heights of popularity in the 1960’s. It was, much like the generation that pioneered it, a rebel with a cause. This style was spurred on with the advancement of film technology, including portable cameras with mobile sound. Cinéma Vérité, meaning ‘True Cinema’ in French, aimed for an extreme naturalism, using non-professional actors, non-intrusive filming techniques, a hand-held camera, genuine locations rather than sound stages, and naturalistic sound without post-production or voiceovers. The camera was a ‘fly on the wall’ and took in everything that went on before it. This broke all the rules put into practice by the classical tradition. Direct Cinema and Cinéma Vérité are often used interchangeably, although there are opinions that make distinctions by the degree of camera involvement. The fundamentals of style, however, are very similar between the two. Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include Showman, Salesman, The Children Were Watching, Primary, Behind a Presidential Crisis, and Grey Gardens.
Documentary Drama
This style mixes the techniques of drama and the factual elements of documentary. Real events are acted out by professional actors in controlled settings in an obviously constructed style. This theatrical retelling of facts began in the early days of broadcasting when practical concerns and unwieldy equipment made it difficult to shoot live events. However, it is used even today. Most modern documentaries include some form of event recreation. The popular UK television show, Coronation Street, was originally thought of as a drama documentary.
The docu-drama style has been one of the most controversial ones till date and many have questioned whether it is a documentary style at all. Contention arose because, while documentaries are thought to be "real", docu-dramas were thought to cheat by obviously reconstructing reality. This opinion has been more or less discarded now as most people not only accept the diminishing lines of distinction between different styles of film, but also the overall artificiality of the subsequent editing process for all styles.
These days, with the advent of documentary films into the worldwide commercial film arena as well as their ever-expanding production in most countries of the world, most generic classifications of style have been put to rest. New stylistic elements are experimented with every year and the lines between genres have been crossed so many
times that specific categories are impossible to define. Reality TV, for example, has stormed the world of television, taking direct cinema to new levels of voyeurism. Whether they are wobbly, out-of-focus home video diaries or the ‘making-of-a-feature’
promotional films included in DVD packs, they have all served to broaden our definition
of the traditional documentary.
So how does all this concern the scriptwriter of a documentary film? This evolution, leading to the overlap of styles and genres, has placed far more overt, interpretive control in the hands of the filmmaker and, consequently, in the hands of the scriptwriter. Before embarking on the writing process, it is important to know the various stylistic options available to you as a scriptwriter. It is also important to recognize the contribution of various traditional styles to modern ones, even if their only use is as a guide to finding a style and ‘voice’ of your own.
Writing a documentary treatment and proposal
Scripts are often not used in documentary films—because you cannot predict what will happen when the camera is rolling. In place of a script, filmmakers use treatments, proposals, or even outlines--to describe and help plan a documentary project. There is a lot of overlap between these concepts and different filmmakers use them in similar and often interchangeable ways.
A treatment is a short story narrative written in simple, non-technical language (ie. no camera angles, transitions, etc.).
A proposal, which frequently includes a treatment, is a description of all aspects of a project. It is created in the pre-production stage of a documentary project to persuade funders, distributors and others to support the project.
Proposals
An effective proposal will:
• Tell a good story
• Make human truths emerge through images—not just verbal description.
• Present a personal, critical perspective on some aspect of the human condition.
• Inform and emotionally move an audience
Usually a proposal will contain the following documents:
1.Synopsis (or the summary of your documentary)
2.Note of intention
3.Treatment
With details:
• Length of work, format.
• Who is the intended audience?
• Goal or intended purpose(s) of the film
• Has any media work already been produced on this subject? If so, what is new, different, interesting, engaging about your approach?
• Style (Any key stylistic elements in writing, shooting, audio, editing, etc.)
• What about the soundtrack? (Any music, narration, etc.—If so, who? what?)
• Who is working on the project? And what similar projects have they done in the past? (Credibility of production team)
• How will this work be distributed? (Which markets, any distributor on board
already?)
• Project history or current status of project.
• Historical background or context of the story
• Who, what, where, when, how, why?
Depending on the situation, you may choose to include the following: How will the project be funded? An outline production schedule. A proposal will usually be accompanied by a budget and a sample reel or work-in- progress edit.
The goal of a proposal is to communicate your idea to someone who may know nothing about either you, your previous work, or this project—don’t make assumptions. Usually a proposal is a key element in securing resources to produce a project--so the credibility of the production team, and such factors as ‘Why this film?’ ‘Why now?’ and
‘Why these producers?’ are important.
Treatments
Whereas a proposal presents its argument rationally via categorized information, the treatment evokes how an audience will experience the film on the screen.
Write in the active-voice in present tense. Tell the reader what they will see and hear on the screen.
Describe the story and introduce any characters. Write colorfully, so the reader
visualizes what’s in your mind’s eye—but avoid splashy adjectives and hyperbole wherever possible (ie: Do not write: “This spellbinding story will be magically brought to life by the remarkable camera work of Jane Spriggs…” You have to show how the story is spellbinding and demonstrate that Ms. Spriggs work is remarkable by providing supporting information. A treatment is not necessarily brief! (usually 2-10 pages, double-spaced)
Be specific—don’t use words like may, might, possibly—your film will do xyz. If you don’t know exactly which music you will use—make your best guess—you can always change your mind later. It is not always possible to answer all these questions, in many cases you will write what you expect to occur.
Treatments and proposals are used to:
1.Describe a project so that people involved share an understanding of interpretation and approach.
2. Create a paper document that can help secure funding, distribution, and other
resources.
3. Provide guidance in the structuring and editing of a documentary project.
You should only write a treatment or proposal after conducting the initial research that will answer as many of the questions listed above as possible. You might visit a library, scan a newspaper archive online, or contact institutions and individuals by phone or email to expand your knowledge of the subject at hand.
Conclusion:
TO KEEP IN MIND for Writing Visually
Writing visually is not just a question of blindly incorporating visual elements into a film. There are a few important things a scriptwriter must keep in mind:
Show, don’t tell – The scriptwriter needs to keep in mind that film is a visual medium. Unlike a novel, a film script is never ‘read’ literally by the audience and therefore the scriptwriter should try and incorporate most of the information he has to give into a visual format. For example; rather than telling the audience that a man is a farmer, the scriptwriter should show the man working in his fields. A potter should be making pottery, a hairdresser cutting someone’s hair and so forth. It always helps to show character and event action rather than talk about it or include it in narration because the audience is then able to experience it themselves, making it more real for them. They can also grasp details and take in sub- conscious information. When given a choice, the scriptwriter must always try and start with a visual image as a base for portrayal of any concept and then use other methods of portrayal only when the visual is not possible.
Show through action and movement – There is a reason we call them
‘moving images’ and the scriptwriter must always try to keep that fact in
mind. The visual must be kept moving; the characters must be ‘doing’ something. The audience will react to movement on screen with interest and to static images with boredom. Wherever possible, the scriptwriter should try and communicate the story to the audience through a moving and action-packed visual narrative.
Visual pertinence – Simply put, visual pertinence is keeping the visuals relevant to the subject and sustaining the flow of action. Don’t show a farmer working behind a desk in a bank unless he works there part-time.
Also, it is important for the scriptwriter to structure sequences according to the point in time they appear in the film. If a character has just suffered a major loss, then don’t show a sequence where she goes to a party unless that’s what she would do naturally in that situation. The scriptwriter has to place the character’s actions in the visuals within the story and make every choice of action, location and image relevant to the story and its subject.
Emotional pertinence – When watching a sequence, the audience take in different aspects of it. One of the things an audience receives from a sequence is emotion. The audience naturally reacts to this emotion with their own emotional reaction. Emotional pertinence is controlling the emotional reaction of the audience and making it relevant to the story at that point in the film. This can be done by the scriptwriter by emphasizing emotional details or triggers which will provide the desired emotional response from the audience.
Moods and Metaphors – The scriptwriter has many visual tools at his disposal including the control of visual mood and visual metaphors to represent an idea that would be otherwise difficult to portray visually. For example; a sequence which features a man working late into the night in his office could be full of shadows to add to the perception of time. Or, a sequence, which features a man on death row being executed in jail by electric chair, could focus on a light bulb momentarily flickering to signify that the man has died.
Special effects – Sometimes, special effects like slow motion, where a visual is slowed down in time, help create and regulate tempo and rhythm in a film as well as enhance emotional value at certain points. Dissolving from one shot to another helps create smoother visual flow. Special effects may or may not be incorporated into the script in great detail. The scriptwriter should only include the specific effects he feels are required to tell the story and are relevant to the subject and mood of the sequence. It is not advisable, however, to use an excess of special effects in a documentary for the simple reason that they alter the nature of reality. This altered reality goes against the very nature of documentary and may or may not be accepted by the audience if it is overdone.
Examples of scripts in other languages
Fiction :
IPANTALO YA YAKOBO by Jean-Claude Uwiringiyimana (2009)
Umuseruko wa 14 : Kwa YAKOBO -Mu nzu-Nijoro
MATWI ari ku meza, aho arya agaragaze uburumbo no kutamenyera kurira ku meza. Igihe YAKOBO ari kwishyirira ibiryo ku isahani, MATWI ahagauruke azamure isahani kugira ngo YAKOBO amwongere. YOZEFA n’abana bamurebe bumiwe. YAKOBO ahuze yiyarurira. MATWI nabona ko arangaye akomange ku meza isahani.
MATWI (n’amashyushyu)
Ntuncure Bosi!
YAKOBO yubure umutwe atangaye. Abana bahite baturika baseke . YOZEFA arebe MATWI n’isesemi nyinshi arebe YAKOBO n’agasuzuguro kenshi, ahagaruke ashake kujyana abana bamwangire, begere MATWI batangire kumukubaganya . YOZEFA agende agana ku cyumba akingure , urugi arukingane umujinya . Bose bahite bikanga bareba ku rugi . MATWI agarure amaso arebe abana n’amashyengo, arebe YAKOBO , utangiye kumwongera ibiryo ku isahani.
MATWI (atungire agatoki Yakobo ku muryango w’icyumba)
Bosi, wabonye ? (ahite atamirana ubusambo ibiryo)
YAKOBO (arebe ku muryango Yozefa asohokeyemo)
Iki?
MATWI (avugane ibiryo mu kanwa, yerekanisha abana
icyuma cyo ku meza.)
Aba bana bo bankunze!
Abana bumve ukuntu avuganye ibiryo mu kanwa baturike baseke, na we aseke. Ibiryo bimuve mu kanwa byikubite mu maso ya YAKOBO, yihanagure. N’umujinya ahaguruke nk’utokowe, akubite ku meza; abana barusheho guseka.
CAMERA TECHNIQUES
Cinematography uses certain common conventions often referred to as the 'grammar' of this audiovisual media. The following list includes some of the most important conventions for conveying meaning through particular camera and editing techniques (as well as some of the specialized vocabulary of film production).
Conventions aren't rules: expert practitioners break them for deliberate effect, which is one of the rare occasions that we become aware of what the convention is.
Camera Techniques: Distance and Angle
Shot size
The term shot is often incorrectly applied to the field size of an image which at times is also incorrectly referred to as framing. The field size defines how much of the subject and its surrounding area is visible within the camera's field of view, and is determined by two factors: Camera-to-subject distance and focal length of a lens. Note that the shorter a lens's focal length, the wider its angle of view (the 'angle' in wide-angle lens, for instance, which is "how much you see"), so the same idea can also be expressed as that the lens's angle of view plus camera-subject distance is the camera's field of view.
Long shot (LS). Shot which shows all or most of a fairly large subject (for example, a person) and usually much of the surroundings. Extreme Long Shot (ELS) - see establishing shot: In this type of shot the camera is at its furthest distance from the subject, emphasising the background. Medium Long Shot (MLS): In the case of a standing actor, the lower frame line cuts off his feet and ankles. Some documentaries with social themes favour keeping people in the longer shots, keeping social circumstances rather than the individual as the focus of attention.
Establishing shot. Opening shot or sequence, frequently an exterior 'General View' as an Extreme Long Shot (ELS). Used to set the scene.
Medium shots. Medium Shot or Mid-Shot (MS). In such a shot the subject or actor and its setting occupy roughly equal areas in the frame. In the case of the standing actor, the lower frame passes through the waist. There is space for hand gestures to be seen. Medium Close Shot (MCS): The setting can still be seen. The lower frame line passes through the chest of the actor. Medium shots are frequently used for the tight presentation of two actors (the two shot), or with dexterity three (the three shot).
Close-up (CU). A picture which shows a fairly small part of the scene, such as a character's face, in great detail so that it fills the screen. It abstracts the subject from a context. MCU (Medium Close-Up): head and shoulders. BCU (Big Close-Up): forehead to chin. Close-ups focus attention on a person's feelings or reactions, and are sometimes used in interviews to show people in a state of emotional excitement, grief or joy. In interviews, the use of BCUs may emphasize the interviewee's tension and suggest lying or guilt. BCUs are rarely used for important public figures; MCUs are preferred, the camera providing a sense of distance. Note that in western cultures the space within about 24 inches (60 cm) is generally felt to be private space, and BCUs may be invasive.
Angle of shot. The direction and height from which the camera takes the scene. The convention is that in 'factual' programmes subjects should be shot from eye-level only. In a high angle the camera looks down at a character, making the viewer feel more powerful than him or her, or suggesting an air of detachment. A low angle shot places camera below the character, exaggerating his or her importance. An overhead shot is one made from a position directly above the action.
LOW HIGH
Images from Daniel Chandler (1994)
Bird's eye shot
In film, a Bird's eye shot refers to a shot looking directly down on the subject. The perspective is very foreshortened, making the subject appear short and squat. This shot can be used to give an overall establishing shot of a scene, or to emphasise the smallness or insignificance of the subjects. These shots are normally used for battle scenes or establishing where the character is. It is shot by lifting the camera up by hands or by hanging it off something strong enough to support it. For a scene that needs a large area shot, then it will most often likely to be lifted up by a crane or some other sort of machine.
Viewpoint. The apparent distance and angle from which the camera views and records the subject. Not to be confused with point-of-view shots or subjective camera shots.
Point-of-view shot (POV). A shot made from a camera position close to the line of sight of a performer who is to be watching the action shown in the point-of-view shot.
Two-shot. A shot of two people together.
Selective focus. Rendering only part of the action field in sharp focus through the use of a shallow depth of field. A shift of focus from foreground to background or vice versa is called rack focus.
Soft focus. An effect in which the sharpness of an image, or part of it, is reduced by the use of an optical device.
Wide-angle shot. A shot of a broad field of action taken with a wide-angle lens.
Tilted shot. When the camera is tilted on its axis so that normally vertical lines appear slanted to the left or right, ordinary expectations are frustrated. Such shots are often used in mystery and suspense films to create a sense of unease in the viewer.
Camera Techniques: Movement
Images from Daniel Chandler (1994)
Zoom. In zooming in the camera does not move; the lens is focussed down from a long-shot to a close-up whilst the picture is still being shown. The subject is magnified, and attention is concentrated on details previously invisible as the shot tightens (contrast tracking). It may be used to surprise the viewer. Zooming out reveals more of the scene (perhaps where a character is, or to whom he or she is speaking) as the shot widens. Zooming in rapidly brings not only the subject but also the background hurtling towards the viewer, which can be disconcerting. Zooming in and then out creates an ugly 'yo-yo' effect.
Following pan. The camera swivels (in the same base position) to follow a moving subject. A space is left in front of the subject: the pan 'leads' rather than 'trails'. A pan usually begins and ends with a few seconds of still picture to give greater impact. The speed of a pan across a subject creates a particular mood as well as establishing the viewer's relationship with the subject. 'Hosepiping' is continually panning across from one person to another; it looks clumsy.
Surveying pan. The camera slowly searches the scene: may build to a climax or anticlimax.
Tilt. A vertical movement of the camera - up or down- while the camera mounting stays fixed.
Crab. The camera moves (crabs) right or left.
Tracking (dollying). Tracking involves the camera itself being moved smoothly towards or away from the subject (contrast with zooming). Tracking in (like zooming) draws the viewer into a closer, more intense relationship with the subject; moving away tends to create emotional distance. Tracking back tends to divert attention to the edges of the screen. The speed of tracking may affect the viewer's mood. Rapid tracking (especially tracking in) is exciting; tracking back relaxes interest. In a dramatic narrative we may sometimes be drawn forward towards a subject against our will. Camera movement parallel to a moving subject permits speed without drawing attention to the camera itself.
Hand-held camera. A hand-held camera can produce a jerky, bouncy, unsteady image which may create a sense of immediacy or chaos. Its use is a form of subjective treatment.
Process shot. A shot made of action in front of a rear projection screen having on it still or moving images as a background.
With sub shots
Source : Wikipedia
For TV, Cinema (French terminology with its equivalent in English, American cinema)
PLANS CINEMA FRANCAIS
PLAN TV.VIDEO
PLANS CINEMA USA
PG = PLAN GENELAL
PGE = PLAN GRAND ENSEMBLE. (personnage dans décor particulièrement vaste) ou PG = idem cinéma.
FS = FULL SHOT
PE = PLAN D’ENSEMBLE
PE = PLAN D’ENSEMBLE (personnage dans décor taille moyenne) ou
PDE = PLAN DEMI-ENSEMBLE. (personnage dans partie du décor)
MLS = MEDIUM LONG SHOT
PM = PLAN MOYEN
PMS = PLAN MOYEN SERRE
MS = MEDIUM SHOT
PA = PLAN AMERICAIN
PAL= PLAN AMERICAIN LARGE. (coupe personnage ou-dessus du genou).
PA = PLAN AMERICAIN. (coupe personnage a mi-cuisses)
PAS = PLAN AMERICAIN SERRE (coupe personnage aux haches).
PRT = PLAN RAPPROCHE POITRINE (coupe personnage à la taille).
MCS = MEDIUM CLOSE SHOT
GP = GROS PLAN
PRP = PLAN RAPPROCHE POITRINE (coupe personnage à la poitrine). GP = Idem cinéma
CU = CLOSE UP
TGP = TRES GROS PLN
TGP = Idem cinéma
ECU = EXTREME CLOSE UP
INSERT
INSERT
INSERT
PV = POINT DE VUE
PV= idem cinéma
POV = POINT OF VIEW
ANNEX for CAMERA TECHNIQUES
L`ESSENTIEL À PROPOS DE LA CAMÉRA
OBJECTIF - Partie avant de la caméra composée de la lentille en verre. (Lens, en anglais)
COUVRE OBJECTIF - Protecteur de plastique qui couvre et protège l'objectif contre les éraflures. (Lens cap, en anglais)
FOYER MANUEL: Bague encerclant l'objectif servant à faire la mise au point (focus)
ZOOM MANUEL: Bague encerclant l'objectif servant à faire des zoom manuellement
VISEUR - Partie qui contient un petit écran dans lequel on visionne l'image (Viewfinder)
ÉCRAN LCD - Écran qui fait corps avec la caméra et permet le visionnement de l'image
ZOOM ÉLECTRIQUE: Manette qui sert à faire des zooms réguliers, sans saccade.
OBTURATEUR: Contrôle la quantité de lumière dans l'image.
ZEBRA: Mécanisme servant à faire apparaître des rayures dans les zones trop lumineuses d'une image.
L`OBJECTIF: Cette lentille de verre doit toujours être propre. On doit éviter de la nettoyer avec un tissus ou un papier trop rude. Il existe du matériel de nettoyage spécialisé. Il arrive qu'on y ajoute une autre lentille qu'on appelle un "GRAND ANGLE". Ce dernier sert à cadrer plus large que l'objectif de base. Dans un petit appartement, par exemple, le grand angle permettra d'inclure une plus grande surface du décor dans l'image. Sans le grand angle, l'objectif standard ne captera qu'une zone plus limité du décor.
COUVRE OBJECTIF: Un petit accessoire qui ressemble à un couvercle de plat Tupperwear. On le place sur la lentille. C'est un mal aimé et un négligé. On l'oublie partout et on le remplace avec un sac de plastique maintenu en place par un élastique. Cela vous fait sourire... c'est pourtant le cas, fréquemment.
FOYER MANUEL: Cette bague de rotation sert à ajuster le foyer, à faire la mise au point. Auparavant on se servait souvent de cette bague pour terminer un plan sur un floue ( On tourne la bague et l'image devient floue) et commencer le plan suivant sur un floue pour ensuite, rapidement, faire la mise au point. C'était une forme de transition populaire en deux plans. On arrive maintenant au même résultat en montage, sans avoir à altérer l'image prise au tournage. Cette bague n'est fonctionnelle que lorsqu'on choisit de travailler en mode manuel. En automatique, la bague devient inutile et la mise au point de l'image se fait toute seule.
ZOOM MANUEL: Cet autre bague d'ajustement sert à faire des zoom, manuellement. On l'utilise peu, le zoom électrique étant régulier dans ses déplacements.
VISEUR: On y place l'oeil pour voir l'image que capte la caméra. De nos jours on utilise davantage l'écran LCD, plus gros et plus commode pour juger d'un plan. Toutefois, le viseur reste précieux en extérieur où la lumière ambiante, trop forte, ne nous permet pas de voir l'image correctement. À noter que le viseur donne, généralement, une image plus nette que l'écran LCD. En certaines conditions, comme en semi obscurité, c'est plus facile de faire la mise au point dans le viseur que dans le LCD.
ÉCRAN LCD: Bijou précieux, il permet au réalisateur de voir l'image que tourne le directeur photo, au moment même où cette image est tournée. En effet on peut voir à plusieurs l'image qui apparaît sur l'écran L.C.D.
ZOOM ÉLECTRIQUE: Il s'agit d'une manette qui permet de faire des zoom parfait, sans saccades. Généralement la vitesse du zoom est variable. Plus on appuie, plus la vitesse est grande.
OBTURATEUR: Un bouton qui contrôle l'entrée de la lumière dans la caméra. Lorsque la lumière est trop forte ou insuffisante, il suffit de l'ajuster. Il a cependant ses limites.
ZEBRA: Lorsque le bouton ZEBRA est enclenché, les parties de l'image dans lesquelles la lumière est trop forte ou est sur le point d'être trop forte, se couvre de zébrures, de rayures. C'est un indicateur précieux. Lisez le manuel de la caméra pour apprendre à bien l'utiliser.
D'autres éléments ont leur importance dans la manipulation de la caméra. Vous les découvrirez dans le manuel d'instruction ou sur Internet, dans le site du manufacturier. Nous nous limiterons, en ce qui nous concerne, à l'essentiel.
En ce qui concerne le support d'enregistrement, c'est à dire la cassette ou le mini disque. La plupart de nos caméras de tournage numérique utilisent la cassette mini DV.
Ces cassettes sont fiables et résistantes, toutefois, elles sont sensibles aux changement de température et se couvre vite d'humidité lors d'un écart brusque de température. Une cassette trop froide, près du point de congélation, qu'on installe dans une caméra chaude, va voir son ruban magnétique se couvrir de buée. Il vaut mieux donner à la cassette une période d'acclimatation lors des changements de températures.
SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Sociolinguistics is the study of the effect of any and all aspects ofsociety, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the waylanguage is used, and the effects of language use on society. Sociolinguistics differs from sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the society on the language, while the latter's focus is on the language's effect on the society. Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree withpragmatics. It is historically closely related to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the two fields has even been questioned recently.[1]
It also studies how language varietiesdiffer between groups separated by certain socialethnicity, religion, status,gender, level of education, age, etc., and how creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social or socioeconomic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place, language usage also varies among social classes, and it is these sociolects that sociolinguistics studies. variables, e.g.,
The social aspects of language were in the modern sense first studied by Indian and Japanese linguists in the 1930s, and also by Gauchat in Switzerland in the early 1900s, but none received much attention in the West until much later. The study of the social motivation of language change, on the other hand, has its foundation in the wave model of the late 19th century. The first attested use of the term sociolinguistics was by Thomas Callan Hodson in the title of a 1939 paper.[2] Sociolinguistics in the West first appeared in the 1960s and was pioneered by linguists such as William Labov in the US and Basil Bernstein in the UK.
